The Role of Computers in Business

Information Technology, like language, affects us on many levels and has fast become integral to all of our lives.   In this course we aim to strike a balance in studying both the social and commercial forces of Information Technology, and networking, in particular. 

Let's take a moment here to introduce the commercial forces.

I am quite certain that each and everyone of you has witnessed first hand, even if it wasn't readily obvious, the impact that computers and computer networks have had on business.

In fact, by now the role of computers in business has risen to the point where computer networks, even more than personnel, are synonymous with the corporate entity.  Is this not true?

What do I mean?  Dell Computers ? isn?t a group of people making and selling personal computers as much as it is a collection of loosely affiliated computer systems that, upon receiving an order or customer service request (all online!), come together in a linear process to do a job.  Cisco Systems ? isn?t so much a manufacturer of switches as it is a trusted brand name and expert marketer who happens to use the Internet and a sophisticated ?network of networks? to weave together suppliers, manufacturers, and distributors to form a coordinated, fully branded, fully customized virtual entity that we know as Cisco. When orders slowed in 1999, Cisco?s response involved rationalizing their supply-base ? leaving capital-intensive subcontractors to squeeze already razor thin margins just to participate in the new, leaner, and ever-responsive sales network.  Indeed Cisco?s information systems are their competitive advantage.

Computers and computer networks act as the central nervous system of today?s enterprise.  Today's regular business people aren?t just relying on them...they're directly administering, monitoring, and configuring them.   While IT staff with specialized skills may focus on application development, integration, and support, today?s business professional requires information technology knowledge to navigate and operate IT systems, to design, customize, and test systems for competitive advantage, and to seek out and identify new solutions that can transform their business.

My opinion about this article :

            Information Technology, like language, affects us on many levels and has fast become integral to all of our lives.   In this course we aim to strike a balance in studying both the social and commercial forces of Information Technology, and networking, in particular. In fact, by now the role of computers in business has risen to the point where computer networks, even more than personnel, are synonymous with the corporate entity. 

This article was taken from :

http://exonous.typepad.com/mis/2004/09/the_role_of_com.html

Import and export

"Imports" consist of transactions in goods and services (sales, barter, gifts or grants) from non-residents residents to residents. The exact definition of imports in national accounts includes and excludes specific "borderline" cases. A general delimitation of imports in national accounts is given below:

• An import of a good occurs when there is a change of ownership from a non-resident to a resident; this does not necessarily imply that the good in question physically crosses the frontier. However, in specific cases national accounts impute changes of ownership even though in legal terms no change of ownership takes place (e.g. cross border financial leasing, cross border deliveries between affiliates of the same enterprise, goods crossing the border for significant processing to order or repair). Also smuggled goods must be included in the import measurement.
• Imports of services consist of all services rendered by non-residents to residents. In national accounts any direct purchases by residents outside the economic territory of a country are recorded as imports of services; therefore all expenditure by tourists in the economic territory of another country are considered as part of the imports of services. Also international flows of illegal services must be included.

Basic trade statistics often differ in terms of definition and coverage from the requirements in the national accounts:

• Data on international trade in goods are mostly obtained through declarations to custom services. If a country applies the general trade system, all goods entering the country are recorded as imports. If the special trade system (e.g. extra-EU trade statistics) is applied goods which are received into customs warehouses are not recorded in external trade statistics unless they subsequently go into free circulation of the importing country.
• A special case is the intra-EU trade statistics. Since goods move freely between the member states of the EU without customs controls, statistics on trade in goods between the member states must be obtained through surveys. To reduce the statistical burden on the respondents small scale traders are excluded from the reporting obligation.
• Statistical recording of trade in services is based on declarations by banks to their central banks or by surveys of the main operators. In a globalized economy where services can be rendered via electronic means (e.g. internet) the related international flows of services are difficult to identify.
• Basic statistics on international trade normally do not record smuggled goods or international flows of illegal services. A small fraction of the smuggled goods and illegal services may nevertheless be included in official trade statistics through dummy shipments or dummy declarations that serve to conceal the illegal nature of the activities.

In national accounts "exports" consist of transactions in goods and services (sales, barter, gifts or grants) from residents to non-residents. The exact definition of exports includes and excludes specific "borderline" cases. A general delimitation of exports in national accounts is given below:

• An export of a good occurs when there is a change of ownership from a resident to a non-resident; this does not necessarily imply that the good in question physically crosses the frontier. However, in specific cases national accounts impute changes of ownership even though in legal terms no change of ownership takes place (e.g. cross border financial leasing, cross border deliveries between affiliates of the same enterprise, goods crossing the border for significant processing to order or repair). Also smuggled goods must be included in the export measurement.
• Export of services consist of all services rendered by residents to non-residents. In national accounts any direct purchases by non-residents in the economic territory of a country are recorded as exports of services; therefore all expenditure by foreign tourists in the economic territory of a country is considered as part of the exports of services of that country. Also international flows of illegal services must be included.

National accountants often need to make adjustments to the basic trade data in order to comply with national accounts concepts; the concepts for basic trade statistics often differ in terms of definition and coverage from the requirements in the national accounts:

• Data on international trade in goods are mostly obtained through declarations to custom services. If a country applies the general trade system, all goods entering or leaving the country are recorded. If the special trade system (e.g. extra-EU trade statistics) is applied goods which are received into customs warehouses are not recorded in external trade statistics unless they subsequently go into free circulation in the country of receipt.
• A special case is the intra-EU trade statistics. Since goods move freely between the member states of the EU without customs controls, statistics on trade in goods between the member states must be obtained through surveys. To reduce the statistical burden on the respondents small scale traders are excluded from the reporting obligation.
• Statistical recording of trade in services is based on declarations by banks to their central banks or by surveys of the main operators. In a globalized economy where services can be rendered via electronic means (e.g. internet) the related international flows of services are difficult to identify.
• Basic statistics on international trade normally do not record smuggled goods or international flows of illegal services. A small fraction of the smuggled goods and illegal services may nevertheless be included in official trade statistics through dummy shipments or dummy declarations that serve to conceal the illegal nature of the activities.

My opinion about this article :

            "Imports" consist of transactions in goods and services (sales, barter, gifts or grants) from non-residents residents to residents. Export of services consist of all services rendered by residents to non-residents. In national accounts any direct purchases by non-residents in the economic territory of a country are recorded as exports of services. In national accounts "exports" consist of transactions in goods and services (sales, barter, gifts or grants) from residents to non-residents. The exact definition of exports includes and excludes specific "borderline" cases.

This article was taken from :

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Import

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Export

Modern Banking

Modern Banking is a sequel to the highly successful Modern Banking in Theory and Practice, first published in 1996. Over the last decade many aspects of banking have changed considerably, though the key features that distinguish banks from other financial institutions remain. Some might question the need for a book on banking rather than one on financial institutions - while banks remain special and unique to the financial sector, books need to be devoted to them.

Modern Banking focuses on the theory and practice of banking, and its prospects in the new millennium. The book is written for courses in banking and finance at Masters/MBA level, or undergraduate degrees specialising in this area. Bank practitioners wishing to deepen and broaden their understanding of banking issues may also be attracted to this book. While they often have exceptional and detailed knowledge of the areas they have worked in, busy bankers may be all too unaware of the key broader issues. Consider the fundamental questions: What is unique about a bank? and What differentiates it from other financial institutions? Answering these questions begins to show how banks should evolve and adapt - or fail. If bankers know the underlying reasons for why profitable banks exist, it will help them to devise strategies for sustained growth.

Modern Banking concludes with a set of case studies that give practical insight into the key issues covered in the book:

• The core banking functions
• Different types of banks and diversification of bank activities
• Risk management: issues and techniques
• Global regulation: Basel 1 and Basel 2.
• Bank regulation in the UK, US, EU, and Japan
• Banking in emerging markets
• Bank failure and financial crises
• Competitive issues, from cost efficiency to mergers and acquisitions
• Case Studies including: Goldman Sachs, Bankers Trust/Deutsche Bank, Sumitomo Mitsui, Bancomer

About the Author

Professor Shelagh Heffernan is currently Professor of Banking and Finance at Cass Business School, City University, London and has been a visiting Professor at several universities. Modern Banking is her fourth book.
A former Commonwealth Scholar at Oxford University, Professor Heffernan is also a past beneficiary of a Leverhulme Trust Research Award, which funded new research on competition in banking, and recently received a second award from the Leverhulme Trust. She publishes in top academic journals - her paper, ‘How do UK Institutions Really Price their Banking Products?’ (Journal of Banking and Finance) was chosen as one of the top 50 published articles by Emerald Management Review.
Current research includes: SMEs and banking services, the conversion of mutuals to bank stock firms, monetary policy and pass through (funded by an ESRC grant), and M&As in banking. Professor Heffernan is an Associate Member of the Higher Education Academy and has received two Distinguished Teaching and Learning awards.

My opinion about this article :

                Modern Banking focuses on the theory and practice of banking, and its prospects in the new millennium. The book is written for courses in banking and finance at Masters/MBA level, or undergraduate degrees specialising in this area. Modern Banking focuses on the theory and practice of banking, and its prospects in the new millennium. The book is written for courses in banking and finance at Masters/MBA level, or undergraduate degrees specialising in this area. Bank practitioners wishing to deepen and broaden their understanding of banking issues may also be attracted to this book.

This article was taken from :

 http://www.amazon.com/Modern-Banking-Shelagh-Heffernan/dp/0470095008

Money and Its Functions

Money is any object or record that is generally accepted as payment for goods and services and repayment of debts in a given country or socio-economic context.^[1][2][3] The main functions of money are distinguished as: a medium of exchange; a unit of account; a store of value; and, occasionally in the past, a standard of deferred payment.^[4][5] Any kind of object or secure verifiable record that fulfills these functions can serve as money.

Money originated as commodity money, but nearly all contemporary money systems are based on fiat money.^[4] Fiat money is without intrinsic use value as a physical commodity, and derives its value by being declared by a government to be legal tender; that is, it must be accepted as a form of payment within the boundaries of the country, for "all debts, public and private".

The money supply of a country consists of currency (banknotes and coins) and bank money (the balance held in checking accounts and savings accounts). Bank money usually forms by far the largest part of the money supply. ^[6][7][8]

Functions                                        

In the past, money was generally considered to have the following four main functions, which are summed up in a rhyme found in older economics textbooks: "Money is a matter of functions four, a medium, a measure, a standard, a store." That is, money functions as a medium of exchange, a unit of account, a standard of deferred payment, and a store of value.^[5] However, modern textbooks now list only three functions, that of medium of exchange, unit of account, and store of value, not considering a standard of deferred payment as a distinguished function, but rather subsuming it in the others.^[4][18][19]

There have been many historical disputes regarding the combination of money's functions, some arguing that they need more separation and that a single unit is insufficient to deal with them all. One of these arguments is that the role of money as a medium of exchange is in conflict with its role as a store of value: its role as a store of value requires holding it without spending, whereas its role as a medium of exchange requires it to circulate.^[5] Others argue that storing of value is just deferral of the exchange, but does not diminish the fact that money is a medium of exchange that can be transported both across space and time.^[20] The term 'financial capital' is a more general and inclusive term for all liquid instruments, whether or not they are a uniformly recognized tender.

Medium of exchange

Main article: Medium of exchange

When money is used to intermediate the exchange of goods and services, it is performing a function as a medium of exchange. It thereby avoids the inefficiencies of a barter system, such as the 'double coincidence of wants' problem.

Unit of account

A unit of account is a standard numerical unit of measurement of the market value of goods, services, and other transactions. Also known as a "measure" or "standard" of relative worth and deferred payment, a unit of account is a necessary prerequisite for the formulation of commercial agreements that involve debt. To function as a 'unit of account', whatever is being used as money must be:

• Divisible into smaller units without loss of value; precious metals can be coined from bars, or melted down into bars again.
• Fungible: that is, one unit or piece must be perceived as equivalent to any other, which is why diamonds, works of art or real estate are not suitable as money.
• A specific weight, or measure, or size to be verifiably countable. For instance, coins are often milled with a reeded edge, so that any removal of material from the coin (lowering its commodity value) will be easy to detect.

Store of value

Main article: Store of value

To act as a store of value, a money must be able to be reliably saved, stored, and retrieved – and be predictably usable as a medium of exchange when it is retrieved. The value of the money must also remain stable over time. Some have argued that inflation, by reducing the value of money, diminishes the ability of the money to function as a store of value.^[4]

Standard of deferred payment

Main article: Standard of deferred payment

While standard of deferred payment is distinguished by some texts,^[5] particularly older ones, other texts subsume this under other functions.^[4][18][19] A "standard of deferred payment" is an accepted way to settle a debt – a unit in which debts are denominated, and the status of money as legal tender, in those jurisdictions which have this concept, states that it may function for the discharge of debts. When debts are denominated in money, the real value of debts may change due to inflation and deflation, and for sovereign and international debts via debasement and devaluation.

Measure of Value

Money, essentially acts as a standard measure and common denomination of trade. it is thus a basis for quoting and bargaining of prices. It has significantly in developing efficient accounting systems. But the most important usage is that it provides a method to compare the values of dissimilar objects.

Money supply

In economics, money is a broad term that refers to any financial instrument that can fulfill the functions of money (detailed above). These financial instruments together are collectively referred to as the money supply of an economy. In other words, the money supply is the amount of financial instruments within a specific economy available for purchasing goods or services. Since the money supply consists of various financial instruments (usually currency, demand deposits and various other types of deposits), the amount of money in an economy is measured by adding together these financial instruments creating a monetary aggregate.

Modern monetary theory distinguishes among different ways to measure the money supply, reflected in different types of monetary aggregates, using a categorization system that focuses on the liquidity of the financial instrument used as money. The most commonly used monetary aggregates (or types of money) are conventionally designated M1, M2 and M3. These are successively larger aggregate categories: M1 is currency (coins and bills) plus demand deposits (such as checking accounts); M2 is M1 plus savings accounts and time deposits under $100,000; and M3 is M2 plus larger time deposits and similar institutional accounts. M1 includes only the most liquid financial instruments, and M3 relatively illiquid instruments.

Another measure of money, M0, is also used; unlike the other measures, it does not represent actual purchasing power by firms and households in the economy. M0 is base money, or the amount of money actually issued by the central bank of a country. It is measured as currency plus deposits of banks and other institutions at the central bank. M0 is also the only money that can satisfy the reserve requirements of commercial banks.

Market liquidity

Main article: Market liquidity

Market liquidity describes how easily an item can be traded for another item, or into the common currency within an economy. Money is the most liquid asset because it is universally recognised and accepted as the common currency. In this way, money gives consumers the freedom to trade goods and services easily without having to barter.

Liquid financial instruments are easily tradable and have low transaction costs. There should be no (or minimal) spread between the prices to buy and sell the instrument being used as money.

Types of money

Currently, most modern monetary systems are based on fiat money. However, for most of history, almost all money was commodity money, such as gold and silver coins. As economies developed, commodity money was eventually replaced by representative money, such as the gold standard, as traders found the physical transportation of gold and silver burdensome. Fiat currencies gradually took over in the last hundred years, especially since the breakup of the Bretton Woods system in the early 1970s.

My opinion about this article :

            The main functions of money are distinguished as: a medium of exchange; a unit of account; a store of value; and, occasionally in the past, a standard of deferred payment.^[4][5] Any kind of object or secure verifiable record that fulfills these functions can serve as money. In the past, money was generally considered to have the following four main functions, which are summed up in a rhyme found in older economics textbooks: "Money is a matter of functions four, a medium, a measure, a standard, a store." That is, money functions as a medium of exchange, a unit of account, a standard of deferred payment, and a store of value.^[5] However, modern textbooks now list only three functions, that of medium of exchange, unit of account, and store of value, not considering a standard of deferred payment as a distinguished function, but rather subsuming it in the others

This article was taken from :

            http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money

Why Finance?

Finance is a broad discipline that affects both organizations and personal life. Finance students study how various entities (individuals, businesses, and governments) raise money, select among investment alternatives and manage their resources. Finance students also gain understanding of financial markets. The major requires strong mathematical, computer and communications skills. A degree in finance can lead to a satisfying career.   

General/Managerial Finance          

The General / Managerial Financial Track introduces students to financial decision making which is rooted in financial theory and practice, recognizing the rapid changes in technology and world economic conditions. Financial Management as the broadest area of finance has the most job opportunities as it is important to all types of enterprises, both private and public.  The role of the financial manager is that of a decision maker.           

Investments

The Investment Track exposes students to the theory, concepts, and practices of portfolio management.  Topics include investment principles, portfolio theory, equilibrium models, the empirical behavior of security prices, market efficiency, asset allocation, portfolio management strategies, valuing stocks, bonds and other investments, performance evaluation, and behavioral finance.  You will have the most flexibility in choosing a financial career in: equity analyst, equity sales, financial markets analyst, fixed income/credit research and analyst, Investment/financial advisor, risk analyst, technical market analyst, mutual fund research, trader and investor relations.           

Personal Financial Planning           

The Personal Financial Planning Track would be appropriate for individuals who wish to work in the broad area of financial services. Such organizations include banks, insurance companies, brokerage companies and broad based financial planning organizations, e.g. Vanguard, American Express.  Students who wish to gain fuller knowledge of their own financial affairs would find this track appealing as well.  
Insurance and Risk Management   
The Insurance and Risk Management track is specifically designed to provide Finance students a basic knowledge of the insurance industry and a basic understanding of the current academic and practitioner literature on financial risk management.  In the Insurance and Risk Management track, students will explore the various functional areas of insurance company management including investment and financing policies as well pricing and underwriting activities.  Students will also become familiar with the range of risks financial institutions, corporations and individuals are facing and learn how to measure and manage these risks.   The Insurance and Risk Management track prepares students for careers in the financial services industry (insurance companies, banks, securities firms, and pension funds).

My opinion about this article :

            Finance is a broad discipline that affects both organizations and personal life. Finance students study how various entities (individuals, businesses, and governments) raise money, select among investment alternatives and manage their resources.

This article was taken from :

http://www.sju.edu/academics/hsb/finance/why.html

The Balance Sheet

In financial accounting, a balance sheet or statement of financial position is a summary of the financial balances of a sole proprietorship, a business partnership, a corporation or other business organization, such as an LLC or an LLP. Assets, liabilities and ownership equity are listed as of a specific date, such as the end of its financial year. A balance sheet is often described as a "snapshot of a company's financial condition". Of the four basic financial statements, the balance sheet is the only statement which applies to a single point in time of a business' calendar year.

A standard company balance sheet has three parts: assets, liabilities and ownership equity. The main categories of assets are usually listed first, and typically in order of liquidity. Assets are followed by the liabilities. The difference between the assets and the liabilities is known as equity or the net assets or the net worth or capital of the company and according to the accounting equation, net worth must equal assets minus liabilities.

Another way to look at the same equation is that assets equals liabilities plus owner's equity. Looking at the equation in this way shows how assets were financed: either by borrowing money (liability) or by using the owner's money (owner's equity). Balance sheets are usually presented with assets in one section and liabilities and net worth in the other section with the two sections "balancing."

A business operating entirely in cash can measure its profits by withdrawing the entire bank balance at the end of the period, plus any cash in hand. However, many businesses are not paid immediately; they build up inventories of goods and they acquire buildings and equipment. In other words: businesses have assets and so they can not, even if they want to, immediately turn these into cash at the end of each period. Often, these businesses owe money to suppliers and to tax authorities, and the proprietors do not withdraw all their original capital and profits at the end of each period. In other words businesses also have liabilities.

Types

A balance sheet summarizes an organization or individual's assets, equity and liabilities at a specific point in time. Individuals and small businesses tend to have simple balance sheets. Larger businesses tend to have more complex balance sheets, and these are presented in the organization's annual report. Large businesses also may prepare balance sheets for segments of their businesses. A balance sheet is often presented alongside one for a different point in time (typically the previous year) for comparison.

Personal balance sheet

A personal balance sheet lists current assets such as cash in checking accounts and savings accounts, long-term assets such as common stock and real estate, current liabilities such as loan debt and mortgage debt due, or overdue, long-term liabilities such as mortgage and other loan debt. Securities and real estate values are listed at market value rather than at historical cost or cost basis. Personal net worth is the difference between an individual's total assets and total liabilities.

US small business balance sheet

Sample Small Business Balance Sheet
Assets		Liabilities and Owners' Equity
Cash	$6,600	Liabilities
Accounts Receivable	$6,200	Notes Payable	$30,000
Tools and equipment	$25,000	Accounts Payable
		Total liabilities		$30,000
		Owners' equity
		Capital Stock	$7,000
		Retained Earnings	$800
		Total owners' equity		$7,800
Total	$37,800	Total		$37,800

A small business balance sheet lists current assets such as cash, accounts receivable, and inventory, fixed assets such as land, buildings, and equipment, intangible assets such as patents, and liabilities such as accounts payable, accrued expenses, and long-term debt. Contingent liabilities such as warranties are noted in the footnotes to the balance sheet. The small business's equity is the difference between total assets and total liabilities.

Public Business Entities balance sheet structure

Guidelines for balance sheets of public business entities are given by the International Accounting Standards Committee (now International Accounting Standards Board) and numerous country-specific organizations/companys.

Balance sheet account names and usage depend on the organization's country and the type of organization. Government organizations do not generally follow standards established for individuals or businesses.

If applicable to the business, summary values for the following items should be included in the balance sheet: Assets are all the things the business owns, this will include property, tools, cars, etc.

Assets

Current assets

1. Cash and cash equivalents
2. Accounts receivable
3. Inventories
4. Prepaid expenses for future services that will be used within a year

Non-current assets (Fixed assets)

1. Property, plant and equipment
2. Investment property, such as real estate held for investment purposes
3. Intangible assets
4. Financial assets (excluding investments accounted for using the equity method, accounts receivables, and cash and cash equivalents)
5. Investments accounted for using the equity method
6. Biological assets, which are living plants or animals. Bearer biological assets are plants or animals which bear agricultural produce for harvest, such as apple trees grown to produce apples and sheep raised to produce wool.

Liabilities

See Liability (accounting)

1. Accounts payable
2. Provisions for warranties or court decisions
3. Financial liabilities (excluding provisions and accounts payable), such as promissory notes and corporate bonds
4. Liabilities and assets for current tax
5. Deferred tax liabilities and deferred tax assets
6. Unearned revenue for services paid for by customers but not yet provided

Equity

The net assets shown by the balance sheet equals the third part of the balance sheet, which is known as the shareholders' equity. It comprises:

1. Issued capital and reserves attributable to equity holders of the parent company (controlling interest)
2. Non-controlling interest in equity

Formally, shareholders' equity is part of the company's liabilities: they are funds "owing" to shareholders (after payment of all other liabilities); usually, however, "liabilities" is used in the more restrictive sense of liabilities excluding shareholders' equity. The balance of assets and liabilities (including shareholders' equity) is not a coincidence. Records of the values of each account in the balance sheet are maintained using a system of accounting known as double-entry bookkeeping. In this sense, shareholders' equity by construction must equal assets minus liabilities, and are a residual.

Regarding the items in equity section, the following disclosures are required:

1. Numbers of shares authorized, issued and fully paid, and issued but not fully paid
2. Par value of shares
3. Reconciliation of shares outstanding at the beginning and the end of the period
4. Description of rights, preferences, and restrictions of shares
5. Treasury shares, including shares held by subsidiaries and associates
6. Shares reserved for issuance under options and contracts
7. A description of the nature and purpose of each reserve within owners' equity

My opinion about this article :

            A balance sheet is often described as a "snapshot of a company's financial condition".   Of the four basic financial statements, the balance sheet is the only statement which applies to a single point in time of a business' calendar year. A balance sheet summarizes an organization or individual's assets, equity and liabilities at a specific point in time. Individuals and small businesses tend to have simple balance sheets. Larger businesses tend to have more complex balance sheets, and these are presented in the organization's annual report.

This article was taken from :

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balance_sheet

An Accounting Overview

The accounting industry has much to offer in terms of opportunities, professional development, and exciting career paths. To be successful in an accounting position one must possess strong analytical abilities, be detailed-oriented, and have the ability to work very quickly and adeptly with numbers. Moreover, those who are the most successful possess not only strong analytical abilities, but also the
1 This handout is prepared with the direct assistance of “Vault Career Guide to Accounting,” and various other sources. For more information about a career in accounting, please refer to Kresge Database.
ability to synthesize, interpret and develop applicable business strategies utilizing financial data. Thus, a career in accounting offers its professionals the opportunity to challenge themselves, work closely analyzing financial data and provide significant value-add to corporations, governments and organizations around the world.
A career in accounting can entail many different specific job functions ranging from an audit or tax-consulting career with a public accounting firm, to an accounting position with an industrial company, to a position with the Government Accounting Office or a non-profit organization.
Types of Accounting:
As noted above, accounting organizations provide a range of services. Traditionally, the two primary services provided are audit and tax. However, many accounting firms have grown their advisor services to offer: corporate finance, risk management, transaction services, business process outsourcing, people and change consulting, IT advising, and personal financial planning.
- Audit: An auditor examines the financial statements of a company or organization and independently certifies the statements are valid, accurate, and relevant. Additionally, an auditor often also provides advisory services such as recommending ways to improve profitability, etc.
- Tax: Accountants who provide tax services primarily create strategies to minimize tax liabilities for their clients. Additionally, they prepare tax returns, advise on tax laws, assure clients tax law compliance, etc.
- Advisor: The advisor role within public accounting serves to analyze key data issues, patterns and trends to identify implications, and improve efficiency and effectiveness for clients. The division of specialty that fall within the advisor line of service differs among the firms.
Types of Accountants:
- Public Accountants: Public accountants generally work for a public accounting firm (for example: Ernst & Young) and provide accounting services to companies, governments, etc. Large public accounting firms provide the range of services discussed above in “Types of Accounting,” and because public companies are required to have yearly audits, a large part of public accounting firms’ business is providing auditing services to public companies.
- Private Accountants: Private accountants work directly for a company, government or non-profit organization. They receive their paycheck from the organization for which they are providing accounting services (for example: Internal Accountant at Kraft Foods). Generally, these accountants prepare the financial statements for the public accountants to audit and certify. Additionally, private accountants may also prepare their company’s tax statements, consult its management on changing accounting principles and ensure the financial integrity of the company’s business transactions.
Changes in the Field
While students’ interest in accounting related fields ebbs and flows depending on the economy, a career in accounting has long been considered “recession proof” and offers significant job security. In 2008, Forbes ranked Accounting Executive #4 and Accounting Staff #5 in its list of “10 Most Recession Proof Jobs.” Additionally, the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics ranked Accountants and Auditors in the Top 20 Occupations with the most demand for 2006-2016.
Accountants are especially in demand when the economy is in a downturn. This is because in times of economic uncertainty the public becomes distrustful of current accounting and reporting systems, leading to changes in regulation and accounting practices. The collapse of companies such as Enron and Worldcom led to the passage of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002. The SOX Act enhanced accounting standards for corporations and those auditing corporations and organizations—leading to increased demand for exceptional accountants. With the inception of SOX, public accounting firms began to divest their consulting services to more easily comply with the tighter regulatory scrutiny. However, firms have recently begun to rapidly rebuild their consulting arms and expand hiring to BBAs again. The recent financial crisis calls for even greater accounting scrutiny and stronger accounting standards and offers those entering the accounting field immense potential for an exciting, promising and challenging career.
The median base compensation for the Ross BBAs entering the accounting field in 2010 was $55, 000. At the Ross School of Business, the employers of the highest number of BBAs have consistently included the “Big 4” public accounting firms—Deloitte, Ernst & Young, KPMG, and PricewaterhouseCoopers, as well as mid-tier firms such as BDO, The Rehman Group, and Plante & Moran. In addition to the audit and tax positions available at the public accounting firms, several students each year go to work for industrial employers as accountants and financial analysts.
Masters in Accounting
In most states, only licensed Certified Public Accountants (CPAs) may provide qualified public opinions and audits on financial statements. In order to qualify for a CPA license, one must fulfill the education and work experience requirements, and pass the Uniform Certified Public Accountant Examination. Education requirements vary b state, but in most states, 150 credit hours are required to sit for the Certified Public Accounting Examination. Ross students most commonly meet this requirement through a fifth year of education, such as the Masters of Accounting program, at Ross or another institution.
For more information about University of Michigan’s MAcc program, please visit the website: http://www.bus.umich.edu/Academics/MAccProgram/

My opinion about this article :

            To be successful in an accounting position one must possess strong analytical abilities, be detailed-oriented, and have the ability to work very quickly and adeptly with numbers. Moreover, those who are the most successful possess not only strong analytical abilities. Fund Accounting tracks the receipt and use of resources by the source of the funds.  It is used by all Higher Education institutions.  The following are the fund groups used:

§ Current funds

§ Loans

§ Endowments

§ Annuity and Life income

§ Plant funds

§ Agency funds

This article was taken from :

http://www.bus.umich.edu/StudentCareerServices/resources/CPAccounting.pdf